Personal Philosophy of higher education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Personal Philosophy of higher education - Essay Example In particular, learning is an evolutionary process that enables the humans to survive naturally under this phenomenon, and individuals lacking in such natural skill are dead. On the other hand, education is a wider concept existing in contrast with the phenomenon of learning, as it includes different aspects that are absent in learning, such as teaching, knowledge, discipline, and procedural proficiency (Daniels, 1996). In other words, education involves intellectual, ethical, and artistic development of individuals, and thus is a process of creating hierarchy among people, families, societies based on certain principles. In this regard, it is very imperative that educators and scholars should put some efforts to distinguish the two different notions that might enable them to improve and enhance the effectiveness of current higher education system. Besides, in the past, higher education system had no requirement of global perspective; however, it is an understanding that after huge advancements in the field of science and information technology, it has now become essential to include a global perspective in the philosophy of higher education. In addition, until today, higher education institutions, particular universities are still enjoying the status of stable bodies, although there might be an alteration in their forms, however, higher education institutions will always enjoy their importance and demand in the human society. One of the reasons of such significance will be their crucial role in providing extensive interpretation of a number of things that do not make sense in the world. However, as the world is changing its form, the term stable itself has become unstable, and constancy is now becoming a short-term phenomenon. In the result, there has been a constant alteration in personal philosophy of higher education since the day one until today that is something very constructive, and it is an understanding that this process of change

Postnatal Depression In Asian Women Health And Social Care Essay

Postnatal Depression In Asian Women Health And Social Care Essay Postnatal Depression affects around 10-15% of mothers having their first baby. Depression during this time is seen as putting the mother at risk for the onset of a serious chronic mood disorder. Studies have indicated that women who do suffer from postnatal depression have a history of depression and psychosocial difficulties (Oates, 2004). Overall South Asians in Britain make up a total of 4% of the ethnic minority population living in the United Kingdom and 50% of the ethnic minority population (ONS 2004). Thus tackling the mental health needs of different cultures is a major public health concern for both commissioning and provider services. Overall research indicates the rates of suicide amongst South Asian women are higher than any other ethnic group (Bhugra, Desai Baldwin,1999). Furthermore this rate is said to double for those women under the age of 30 (Bhugra, Desai Baldwin 1999). Oates (2004) states that these factors are further exacerbated during the postnatal period. Th us the need to understand the causes and origins of depression amongst this cultural group is essential in order for health visitors to provide effective assessments and appropriate interventions. However research looking at prevalence rates of Depression show little evidence of this illness amongst South Asians. For example this conclusion has arisen when looking at hospital admission rates. Cochrane (1977) found there to be lower admission rates for Pakistani Females and Males. This was further made evident in a follow up study conducted between 1971 -1981, which found that Pakistanis had low admission rates for all types of illness and disorders (Cochrane et al, 1989). Similar findings have been found in G.P admission rates. Gillam et al (1989) provided more generalised findings in which he found that Asian women in general have low consultation rates for depression and various other mental disorders compared to white women. Thus it would be valid to conclude at this point that hospital admission rates suggest that Asians do not suffer from depression. However Nazroo (1997) disagrees with these findings. He points out that the instruments which are used in the study fail to accurately assess the prevalence of mental illness within Asians. Similarly Brewin (1980) found that there was no apparent difference in G.P consultation rates for Depression between Asian women and White women living in oxford. He also stated that the figures which have indicated low consultation and admission rates, do not reflect low rates of psychiatric treatments. One could therefore suggest that there are flaws in considering admission rates and identifying mental illness amongst South Asians. The consideration of prevalence rates is not the focus of the present review, however the possible causes of low admission rates amongst South Asians shall be considered throughout the review in relation to the research findings. 2.1 Role of the Health Visitor in assessing Postnatal Depression The National Midwifery Council (2007) highlights Specialist Community Public Health Practitioner Nurses to be equipped with the skills and training to identify and assess mental health needs of mothers during the postnatal period. Furthermore, the National Institute of Clinical Excellence (2007) highlights the importance of health professionals identifying mental illness during the postnatal period and state: at a womens first contact with primary care health care professionals (including midwives, obstetricians, health visitors and GPS) should ask two questions to identify possible depression: During the past month, have you been bothered by feeling down , depressed or hopeless? During the past month have you often be bothered by having little interest or pleasure in doing things? A third question should be considered if a women answered yes to both clinical questions, such as is this something that you would want help with . Thus it is evident that identifying and assessing postnatal depression is pertinent to the role of the health visitor as they are in the frontline in providing early intervention and prevention. However, assessment of Postnatal Depression is challenging when faced with different cultural groups where behavioural, social, and cultural practices differ making assessment and treatments difficult. Aim The purpose of the present literature review is to examine the evidence regarding the causes of Postnatal Depression amongst South Asian Women. Thus through collecting and reviewing the research evidence is it proposed it will further expand our knowledge and understanding of Postnatal Depression amongst South Asian women. Furthermore, the review aims to make some recommendations for practice and identify some key areas in which the health visiting practice can further develop and propose various interventions which may be effective in addressing Postnatal depression amongst South Asian women. 4 RESULTS OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW Overall the final results included a total of 11 studies (refer to appendix) . The results indicated there to be a limit in the research on Postnatal Depression amongst South Asian Women. A total of two studies were identified within the search which had specifically looked at the origins of Postnatal Depression amongst South Asian Women . Furthermore these studies were conducted in Goa India, therefore there was question the generalisability of these findings being applied to population living in Britain. Thus it was decided to incorporate studies looking at Depression amongst South Asian women as it would contribute to understanding the origins of mental illness within this community. A number of categories emerged from the studies . These categories were further combined into a further sub categoroes (refer to figure )? categories. As a result the diagram shown (refer to Figure 1, p ) represents how the data was organised and the categories that emerged. The origins of Depression within South Asian Women Assessment of Depression within South Asian Women Diagram to show the how findings were analysed ORIGINS OF POSTNATAL DEPRESSION IN SOUTH ASIAN WOMEN a) Research Question: CULTURAL VUNERABILITIESb) Core Theme: c) Higher Order: ASSESSMENT CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS d) Lower order: Extended Family Living Cultural Expression of Depression Gender of the Newborn Stigmatisation 5 Chapter 1: THE ORIGINS OF POSTNATAL DEPRESSION IN SOUTH ASIAN WOMEN This chapter will examine the evidence available regarding the causes or origins of depression in South Asian women. Overall the results have indicated that that the causes or origins of depression are, due to the what the researcher describes as Cultural Vulnerabilities which mean that they are a result of being exposed to an environment of which depression is a unavoidable response. The results are presented the following format, description of each theme along with the supporting evidence. 5.1.1 The theme of Cultural Expectations: The theme of cultural expectations refers to those expectations formulated by the culture. Such expectations include conforming to cultural traditions. For instance living with the extended family aswell as pressures and expectations to have a male child. Living with the extended family largely refers to living with the mother and father inlaw, husbands brothers and sisters, which can lead to feeling oppressed with a number of family expectations. For example of the 11 articles reviewed the issue of extended family living occurred a total ? times within the studies as a cause of depression for South Asian Women. Shah-Sonuga-barke (2000) conducted a study looking at the relationship between the family structure and maternal mental health of two generations of Muslim and Hindu Women along with the influence this had on childrens behavioural problems. A total of 44 Muslim families and 42 Hindu families agreed to take part in the study. The mental health of the women was monitored using a Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale which is 14 item self report questionnaires. The results indicated that of 46% of the mothers and 40 % of the grandmothers scored above the scale for anxiety. Furthermore 29% of the mothers and 44 % of the grandmothers scored above the cut off point for depression, thus indicating that the majority of the randomly selected sample suffered from significant mental health issues. The findings indicated that grandmothers and children benefited from living in the extended family environment however it had detrimental effects on the maternal mothers mental health status. Thus suggesting that the traditional extended family, amongst immigrant communities is not always of benefit to its members and in may in some circumstances contribute to the risk in mental health. Similarly Hicks and Bhugra (2003) conducted a focus group study investigating the possible causes of suicide within South Asian women. A total of 180 South Asian women formed part of the convenience sample from 9 G.P practices and 24 South Asian community organisations in London area. The study was conducted in two parts the subjects were sent questionnaires focussing on the perceived causes of suicide and the findings from these results were formed the focus of discussion within the focus groups. The findings indicated that 90% stated a unhappy family situation to be causal factors. Thus further highlighting the family to be central in experiencing mental illness for South Asian Women. The possible explanation for these results is that grandmothers that may have grown up in their country of origin where such traditions may have been easier to conform to as there is no exposure to the western world. Thus in some cases failure to understand this concept they may project the same values to a generations that is growing up and being exposed to different cultures. In contrast to this study, previous research which has looked at the benefits of extended family living have shown extended families to be a protective factor in alleviating depression in women. For example, Birchwood et al (1992) elaborates on how extended family living reduces the likelihood of suffering with depression and suggested that the support and practical advice offered in an extended family can moderate the risks associated with the development of mental illness. Furthermore, on, Stainbrook (1954) suggested that the family structure plays a role in mediation of depression western cultures might be responsible for low levels of depression within South Asian Community . For example he stated that the frustrations and the problems which may be faced with in early life, for example marriage and new born are cushioned by the provision of many family members, who play a part in parenting within the extended family. Tseng and Hsu (1969) identified how the extended family setting brings about low levels of depression. They conducted some research on Twianese family and found that living within the extended family creates a feeling of togetherness and stability and there is a feeling of belonging. Similarly Violtles et al (1967) stated that the role of the family is important in the sharing of loss, it reduces a sense of isolation which can result in depression. It is acknowledged from the studies above that they were conducted on different cultural groups thus explaining the contrast in findings. However the implications of this in relation to health visiting practice and assessment of PND in South Asian women is that the perception of living with the extended family can be perceived as being positive it may be observed that these women living in a extended family setting are in a supportive environment however it is this environment which can initiate depression for South Asian women. Furthermore previous research that has highlighted the benefits of the extended have been conducted in 50s, 60s and 70s which poses question on the historical validity of these findings to the present day. The question of whether the findings are applicable to todays population are brought to light. Further on, the research has been conducted on specific cultures therefore is not applicable to all cultural groups, and further highlights the complexity of identifying causal factors. The limitations of the two studies are that they both used a small random sample thus posing questions on the generalisability of the findings. Furthermore the Hicks and Bhugra (2003) recruited only a English speaking sample thus the results are representative of those who are educated only , however recruiting from a sample that spoke little English would have increased the validity of the findings. However the validity of the study is increased as it is conducted in two parts using both a qualitative and quantitative approach thus increasing the validity of the findings. In contrast Hussan and Cochrane (2002) conducted a qualitative study using the grounded theory approach to explore the perception and causes of depression in South Asian Women. The researchers interviewed 10 women in Punjabi, Urdu and English who were suffering from depression, along with their carers who were also interviewed about the causes of depression . The results of the study indicated that conflicting cultural expectations were initiators of depression. The women stated that moving from their country of origin had fragmented the family set up therefore there was a sense of loss and lack of support from the extended family. They stressed that the extended family provided them with support when carrying out daily activities however moving to England there was too many expectations placed upon the women to fulfil the role of the mother, and wife and carrying out all the duties to maintain the respect of the family. This finding contrasts to previous findings which highlight the extended families to be contributory in initiating depression for women. A possible explanation for these results are that migrating from their country of origin involves the individuals leaving behind their homes and their culture. It is a period of adjustment into a new environment which can inturn lead to experiencing a sense of loss and isolation. In some cases this sense of loss can be like a mourning process which can take place at least until the new culture begins to replace some of the old ties. These feelings of loss are expected to be a normal process but if a women for example emigrates from her country of origin and fails to find a substitute for what she has left behind then it interfers with the adaption process. Thus these feelings of loss can inturn result in psychological and distress and illness. Therefore the role of the extended family in this case is protective. 5.1.3. Gender of the new born The gender of the new born has been highlighted to further initiate Depression for South women. Overall the studies indicated that there was a general preference for a male child. Being a female was considered to be a burden on the family. Thus the expectation to produce a male child places a huge expectation on the mother adding to her pressure to conform to these cultural expectations. Jambunathan (1992) studied 30 women in Madhuri India and examined social cultural factors in the development of depression. The interviews revealed that females were believed to be a curse on the family. For example one of the participants within the study stated that: instead of being born a girl it is better to be born a free sparrow or a crowor one should die (p264) . The participants within the study believed that females produced a burden on the family in relation to their marriage prospects aswell as financial stress in giving of dowries. The male was preferred as it was believed they would sup port them in old age and more importantly carry on the family name (Jambunathan 1992). Furthermore, Patel et al (2002) examined the cultural specific factors such as the gender of the infant and the association with Postnatal Depression. Indian women were recruited who were mostly Hindu in origin (89%) from Goa India who participated within the study. The results of the study indicated that at 6-8 weeks 23 % of the women had postnatal depression. At 6 months a total of 22 % of the women were depressed. 14 % of the women were considered to be chronically depressed. The results indicated that gender of the newborn was significantly associated with the development of postnatal depression. The results also highlighted marital violence to be significantly higher if the infant was a girl but lower if the infant was a boy. The results suggested overall there is a preference for a male infant within this cultural group. The data was collated over a period of 6 months using two different measures. Firstly the General Health Questionniare was employed and the EPDS was used postp artum. The problem with using the two different scales were that they may both measure different aspects of depression this is not made clear within the study. Furthermore the Konki version of the scale was utilized. The validity of the scale was investigated using a two stage pilot study thus there was no confirmation this was only a pilot study. The sample was located from a hospital setting therefore it puts question on the reliability of these findings to be generalised to the population of Goa, even though thes study concludes it to be representative of the population in Goa. Roderugues et al (2003) conducted a study which looked at the attitudes and perceptions of mothers towards childbirth. The results indicated that the poor relationships with the mother-inlaw, and husbands caused a great deal of distress for the women within the study. Furthermore the women in the study further claimed that the birth of a daughter further caused problems within their relationships with the family and the In-laws. Furthermore the gender of the infant was recognised by the fathers as being a possible cause of nerves for their wives. These findings further suggest that the cultural factors initiate depression. This study adds further strength to the previous study as the study incorporates the fathers and their perceptions. Furthermore the results are compared with depressed and non depressed women , increasing the generalisability of the findings to the general population. In contrast to these findings Goyal et al (2005) investigated whether such cultural factors such as the gender of the infant and arranged marriages are associated with the development of Postnatal. This was a quantitative study which involved administering the PPDS a Postpartum Depression scale to 58 self selected immigrant Asian Indian women between 2 weeks and 12 months postpartum livin in the USA. The researchers attached additional 14 questions including the age ethnicity and education , occupation, marital status and whether it was arranged and the years living in the U.S. Furthermore medical information regarding the pregnancy, type and the gender of the newborn was recorded aswell as the gender of the previous children. 69 % of the women reported in having an arranged marriage. Women were well educated with at least 50% having a masters degree 43% were described as house makers. A total of 59 % gave birth to a male infant and 41% gave birth to a female infant. Previous history of depression was reported in 7% of the women. The results indicated that 24% screened positively for symptoms of depression and the results indicated that there was no statistically significant difference in the level of depression of those women that had an arranged marriage compared to those who had not had an arranged marriage. Furthermore there was no statistical significance in relation to the gender of the newborn and depression. A possible explanation for the difference in these results are that three of the studies which have indicated gender of the offspring to be a initiator of depression were conducted in the participants country of origin, where such cultural traditions and beliefs maybe more prevalent. Whereas Goyal et als (1998) study was conducted on a sample of women who were educated and living in an environment where they were exposed to western beliefs and traditions thus such cultural beliefs were perhaps difficult for the participant to hold. In relation to the practice implications of these studies suggest that if gender of the newborn is a factor then the antenatal visits perhaps should question whether there is a preference for male child and whether there are any expectations and pressures placed upon them by the extended family. 6 Chapter 2 Assessment of Postnatal Depression in South Asian Women This chapter will examine the evidence available regarding the assessment of depression in South Asian women. Overall there is possible reasons as to why depression is difficult to assess these being the stigma surrounding the illness , the communication of distress, and the tools employed to assess depression in south asian women to be factors which can make assessment of cultural factors which have been discussed in the previous chapter difficult to detect. The results are presented the following format, description of each theme along with the supporting evidence. 5.1.1 Communication of Distress Words that represent emotional status in many European languages have been found not exist within the South Asian culture. Wilson and McCarthy (1994) found that South Asians living in the UK express their depression somatically. The study screened a total of ? patients in G.P practices It was found that Asian patients reported having a physical problem alone rather that a mental problem compared to White patients. Thus this may lead to the indigenous population being correctly diagnosed as having depression that the Asian population. Similarly Odell et al (1997) suggested that Asian patients tended to focus much more on the physical symptoms, thus it therefore made it difficult for G.Ps to detect depression. Thus suggesting that if the G.P is unable to detect depression accurately in Asian women they are less likely to visit their G.P. This suggests a possible reason for low consultation rates between Asian patients and Health professionals. Rack (1979) found that in the Asian Cultur e there is no acknowledgement for the word of depression being a mental illness. It was found that in the Asian culture Asians perceived illness as being judged by the degree of social dysfunction. Therefore if a women failed in her social roles then her illness would become apparent. On the other hand if a women expresses internal distress it is not recognised. Karaz (2005) compared depressive symptoms within two cultural groups. 36 South Asian immigrants and 37 European Americans were presented with vignette describing symptoms of depression along with a semi structured interview. The results indicated there were significant differences in the representation of depression. It was identified that depression for South Asian Women was measured through a breakdown of relationships within the family; in particular reference was made to their relationship with the extended family and husbands. In contrast European Americans characterised depression in relation to their biology and hormonal imbalances. This suggests that even if the symptoms of depression are prevalent . the recognition, and understanding and treatment of the illness is different across cultures. Gausia et al (2009) investigated the prevalence of PND amongst South Asian Women within the sub district of Bangladesh. A total of 346 women were followed from late pregnancy to early postpartum period. The risk factors identified were formulated using a questionnaire and women were followed up and administered the EPDS scale which was validated using the BANGLA version . they identified that PND could be predicted by a number of variables these being depression in pregnancy , prenatal death, poor relationship with mother in-law or husband mother or wife. It is evident from the literature that there are clear differences in the way in which depression is expressed within cultures. In order to diagnose the symptoms it is essential to have an understanding of the language, culture beliefs and values as it appears that these values play a part in the attitude of the sufferer. Therefore due to this in-depth knowledge of the persons culture there is question on the western diagnostic tools when interpreting illness, it is questionable whether these western diagnostic tools can be used with non western populations? Research has indicated that there are a number of problems of interpreting depression in different cultural groups, they have all concluded that there is a need to be more culturally aware and to consider social, cultural and economic aspects of a persons life as well as their attitudes and beliefs. Furthermore it highlights why depression rates are reported to be low in this community it is because of these cultural specific fac tors that rates of depression within this community may be lower or higher than originally assumed. Communication of distress Words that represent various emotions have been found not to be present within the some languages. Another possible reason for depression within the South Asian women is the issue of stigma Attached to illness within the Asian community. The illness of the mind is perceived as being madness within the culture and believed to be incurable. Therefore those suffering from the illness will not come forward for treatment. Furthermore those suffering from depression before marriage, their chances of getting married were reduced as the community was aware of this. I f the women however married and their depression arises there is pressure placed on the husband to remarry (Cochrane and Hussain 2002). Similalry Karaz (2005) further highlighted the stigma associated with the illness as South Asian women would refer to depression as being pagal or crazy which inturn affects her status within the family. These studies suggest depression is part of the living experience for these women for exampl e migrating to a new country or family. Thus it appears that asian women have internalised these beliefs , it then acts as barrier to them seeking any treatment or making their illness known. For this reason depression is likely to be high amongst this group . For example the role of the family again was a key instigator and asell a)s expectations placed upon the female to fufill the duties of a mother, wife and daughter -inlaw. Further areas identified to initate depression for women were migration from their country of origin Thus it is evident at this point there is a issue of personal space when living in this environment. The women may feel their personal space is expected to be shared amongst this environment. Thus in moving away from such traditions she is forced into their way of living thus creating a conflict between the generations and cultures. 6 Assessment of Postnatal Depression in South Asian Women Problems of measurement of depression across cultures: It is evident from the literature that there are clear differences in the way in which depression is expressed within cultures. In order to diagnose the symptoms it is essential to have an understanding of the language, culture beliefs and values as it appears that these values play a part in the attitude of the sufferer. Therefore due to this in-depth knowledge of the persons culture, it is questionable whether these western diagnostic tools can be used with non western populations? Research has indicated that there are a number of problems of interpreting depression in different cultural groups, they have all concluded that there is a need to be more culturally aware and to consider social, cultural and economic aspects of a persons life as well as their attitudes and beliefs. Furthermore it highlights why depression rates are reported to be low in this community it is because of these cultural specific factors that rates of depression within this community may be lower or higher t han originally assumed. This Chapter will focuss on the the validity of such tools such as the EPDS in indentifying Depression amongst South Asian Women.

Vietnams economy :: essays research papers

The conquest of Vietnam by France began in 1858 and was completed by 1884. It became part of French Indochina in 1887. Independence was declared after World War II, but the French continued to rule until 1954 when they were defeated by Communist forces under Ho Chi MINH, who took control of the North. US economic and military aid to South Vietnam grew through the 1960s in an attempt to bolster the government, but US armed forces were withdrawn following a cease-fire agreement in 1973. Two years later, North Vietnamese forces overran the South. Despite the return of peace, for over two decades the country experienced little economic growth because of conservative leadership policies. Since 2001, Vietnamese authorities have committed to economic liberalization and enacted structural reforms needed to modernize the economy and to produce more competitive, export-driven industries. The country continues to experience protests from the Montagnard ethnic minority population of the Central Highlands over loss of land to Vietnamese settlers and religious persecution. Vietnam is a densely-populated, developing country that in the last 30 years has had to recover from the ravages of war, the loss of financial support from the old Soviet Bloc, and the rigidities of a centrally planned economy. Substantial progress was achieved from 1986 to 1997 in moving forward from an extremely low level of development and significantly reducing poverty. Growth averaged around 9% per year from 1993 to 1997. The 1997 Asian financial crisis highlighted the problems in the Vietnamese economy and temporarily allowed opponents of reform to slow progress towards a market oriented economy. GDP growth of 8.5% in 1997 fell to 6% in 1998 and 5% in 1999. Growth then rose to 7% in 2000-04 even against the background of global recession. Since 2001, however, Vietnamese authorities have reaffirmed their commitment to economic liberalization and international integration. They have moved to implement the structural reforms needed to modernize the economy and to produce more comp etitive, export-driven industries. However, equitization of state-owned enterprises and reduction in the proportion of non-performing loans has fallen behind schedule. Vietnam's membership in the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and entry into force of the US-Vietnam Bilateral Trade in December 2001 have led to even more rapid changes in Vietnam's trade and economic regime.

How Technology Affects our Lives Essay

Technology is very much a part of modern life. Many people see technology as force that escaped from human control, others feel that technology has improved the quality of life. The issue of technology being a part of modern life is a controversial one. Some feel that the contribution of technology has made a positive impact in modern life that technology helps improve the quality of life. But still it’s in a big question. Technology’s role in our lives is astonishing. Its effect on the way we communicate has changed the English language forever. In â€Å"In the Beginning Was the Word† Christine Rosen tells how technology has a huge negative effect on our lives today. She also explains that because we are so attached to our electronic devices, we are creating more distractions for ourselves. In â€Å"Three Tweets for the Web† Tyler Cowen believes that internet soon will completely overcome books. He also says that technology is forcing us to multitask. Today for younger generation internet can provide faster and more accurate information on Google than going to a library and doing a research. Cowen begins his essay that printed word isn’t dead yet and that we won’t end up on internet. He says â€Å"For today’s younger people, Google is more likely to provide a formative cultural experience than The Catcher in the Rye or Catch-22 or even the Harry Potter novels. There is no question that books are becoming less central to our cultural life† (245). We want to get the information quickly, we don’t want to wait extra hours or even days for it. Rosen says â€Å"Today, of course, abridgment and abbreviation are the norm, and our impatience for information has trained even those of us who never cracked an issue of Reader’s Digest to prefer 60-second news cycles to 62 condensed pages per month† (204). We pay more attention to the information which we got from the internet, than we did anywhe re else. At the same time technology is making us multitask, multitasking is not an easy thing to do and it takes a lot of brain activity. Cowen writes â€Å"The mass migration of intellectual activity from print to the Web has brought one important development: We have begun paying more attention to information. Overall, that is a big plus for the new world order† (246). He also mentions â€Å"It is easy to dismiss this cornucopia as information overload. We have all seen people scrolling with one hand through a BlackBerry while pecking out instant messages (IMs) on a laptop with the other and eyeing a television (I  will not say â€Å"watching†). But even though it is easy to see signs of overload in our busy lives, the reality is that most of us carefully regulate this massive inflow of information to create something uniquely suited to our particular interests and needs – a rich and highly personalized blend of cultural gleanings† (246). Technology has even pushed authors to make the readings more consumer-friendly. Rosen explains that â€Å"The digital revolution has also transformed the experience of reading by making it more consumer-oriented. With the advent of electronic readers (and cellphones that can double as e-readers), the book is no longer merely a thing you purchase, but a service to which you subscribe. With the purchase of a traditional book, your consumer ends when you walk out of the bookstore. With a wirelessly connected Kindle or Iphone, or your Wi-Fi-enabled computer, you exist in a perpetual state of potential consumerism† (205). To sum everything up both, Christine Rosen and Tylen Cowen thinks that technology does have a huge impact to the language. It still has some good features, such as: it allows us to multitask faster and better, we can save time by just looking something up we need on Google, and for last if we still want to read a book, we can always just subscribe to a e-book provider, then you just download the e-book on your phone, tablet, or computer and here you go! So what all that means is that technology didn’t really killed printed word, even though we’re most likely to choose to read electronically, we still read.

From Practical Knowledge To Practical Theory Education Essay

Several developments and worldwide alterations have begun to transform the nature of the workplaces and occupations in which they are performed ( Nankervis, Compton & A ; Baird 2005 ; Seel 2002 ) . These developments include the influences of globalisation and technological developments every bit good as political, economical, and societal alterations that are associated with the amendments of the new industrial systems and competitory markets or what is called ‘Postmodernity ‘ ( Stoll, Fink & A ; Earl 2003 ; Hargreaves 1994 ) . Postmodernity is defined as â€Å" a societal status in which economic, political, organisational, and even personal life comes to be organized around really different rules than those of modernness † ( Hargreaves 1994, p. 9 ) . It is characterized by the demand of flexibleness and reactivity as reflected in decentralised decision-making, level organisational constructions, dynamic webs of collaborative reactivity, and increased personal au thorization. In instruction, teacher ‘s engagement in the alteration procedure is considered critical, particularly if the alteration is complex and affects assorted educational scenes over a long period of clip ( Hargreaves 1994 ) . Teacher ‘s engagement is to be meaningful and productive when instructors get more than new cognition of teaching method and course of study. Teachers are non merely proficient scholars ; they are societal scholars who play an of import function in society and for society ( Beare 2001 ; Middleton & A ; Hill 1996 ) . Schooling in the station modern age trades with personal formation, belief building, developing a universe position, civilization transmittal, and geting the utile cognition and enabling accomplishments ( Beare 2001 ) . Teaching is considered a complex undertaking that involves garnering out a set of specific activities, patterns, and resources in footings of several educational intents ( Sanders & A ; McCutcheon 1986 ) . Furthermore, Sanders and McCutcheon argue that successful instructors should form these multiple factors so that they are effectual in cultivating the acquisition of a peculiar group of students. The cognition which is considered utile for instructors in transporting out this undertaking is practical information organized in the signifier of repertory, thoughts, and schemes that are effectual for them in a specific scene. In the last 2 decennaries, research on instruction has progressively focused on the knowledges that underlie instructors ‘ schoolroom patterns, instead than on their behaviours ( Van Driel, Verloop & A ; De Vos 1998 ) . This alteration in focal point was reinforced by developments in cognitive psychological science. These developments were based on the cardinal premise that instructors ‘ knowledges and actions influence each other, and, similarly, those instructors ‘ knowledges and their schoolroom behaviours reciprocally affect each other. These knowledges are referred to instructors ‘ practical cognition that underlies instructors ‘ actions. The term practical cognition is drawn from Fenstermacher, who described it as the cognition of instructors ( Husu 1999 ) . Fenstermacher distinguished this type of cognition from formal cognition, which he described as cognition for instructors. Practical cognition is the cognition that instructors generate as a co nsequence of their experiences as instructors and their contemplations on these experiences. This cognition is anchored in schoolroom state of affairss ; it includes all the practical quandary that instructors encounter in transporting out purposeful actions ( Munby, Russell & A ; Martin 2001 ) . Teacher ‘s Practical KnowledgePersonal cognition is related to the experiences and thoughts that a individual draws upon in order to learn and germinate as a instructor, it relates to adult male ‘s action and behaviour ( Back 2002 ) . Beliefs, values, attitudes, prejudices, and temperament are footings that relate to this personal cognition. Connelly, Clandinin and He ( 1997 ) refer this pre-articulated sense of instruction as personal practical cognition. For personal cognition to develop, instructors need clip and infinite to reflect on past practical experiences that inform their positions on learning. Nevertheless, instruction is a dynamic procedure that is constructed and continuously re-constructed, as instructors frame new experiences into their personal practical cognition on instruction. Practical cognition is at the centre of a instructor ‘s professional pattern ( Munby, Russsell & A ; Martin 2001 ) . There are four features of practical cognition. First, practical cognition is clip edge. Second, practical cognition is state of affairs specific and does non interpret easy to other, even in similar fortunes. Third, practical cognition is personally compelling. While information acquired in a professional development seminar might be interesting, it will non do the instructor to change pattern unless the particular job addressed is one that instructor is presently confronting in the schoolroom. Finally, practical cognition is directed toward action. The information is acquired ‘in usage ‘ with the professional giving significance to the new information even as he/she is make up one's minding the following action to take ( Schon 1987 ) . From a reappraisal of surveies on instructors ‘ practical cognition, the undermentioned features are identified: Practical cognition is personal ; each instructor ‘s practical cognition is to some extent unique, it is defined and adapted to the schoolroom state of affairs, it is based on ( contemplation on ) experience. Practical cognition originates in, and develops through, experiences in instruction, it guides instructors ‘ pattern, and it is connected with the topic that is taught ( Munby, Russsell & A ; Martin 2001 ; Schon 1987 ; Connelly, Clandinin & A ; He 1997 ; Driel, Verloop & A ; De Vos 1998 ) Practical Knowledge as TheoryMarland ( 1998 ) argues that practical cognition serves some of the maps of theory. He asserts that practical cognition provides a footing for instructors to depict and explicate what they do in schoolrooms and why. Practical cognition aid instructors to foretell how pupils might respond, to make up one's mind what is the best response to their reaction, and to bring forth effectual and feasible instruction programs and modify them when necessary or possible. Marland adds that practical cognition serves three standard maps of theory: description, account, and anticipation. Practical theories as Drum sanders and McCutcheon ( 1986 ) point out are markedly different from scientific theories. They lack the conceptual preciseness and generalizability of scientific theories, they have non been formulated in footings of a formal linguistic communication, so, can non be subjected to the same strict logical trials as scientific theories. Practical theories are the conceptual constructions and visions that provide instructors with justification for actions and for learning activities they choose in order to be effectual. They are considered the rules that guide instructors ‘ grasps, determinations, and actions. Teachers Practical TheoriesMarland ( 1998 ) argues that practical theories of instructors are impressions about how to learn. These impressions have been crafted by instructors from their ain experiences of learning for the intent of set uping their peculiar work scenes. Practical theories are hence individualized and context-specific. They are inexplicit in beginning and derived from the experience of learning. Drum sanders and McCutcheon ( 1986 ) specify practical theories as â€Å" the conceptual constructions and visions that provide instructors with grounds for moving as they do, and for taking the instruction activities and course of study stuffs they choose in order to be effectual † ( p. 54 ) . Practical theories are considered of import and of value for instructors because they offer their holders guidelines as to what be most effectual in a peculiar educational context. They are prized by instructors who see them as dependable and best ways to continue. For this ground, practical theories could be sometimes immune to alter ( Marland 1998 ) . Fenstermacher ( cited in Husu 1999 ) asserts that justification can take topographic point when logical thinking may demo that action is sensible thing to make, an obvious thing to make, and the lone thing to make under the fortunes. Each one of these is considered a part to the justification of a regulation of pattern. The regulations are justified because they have proven their worth and have hence been approved. Teachers think, both explicitly and implicitly, that their regulations of pattern work. This is why instructors act consequently. They believe that there is a connexion between the regulations of pattern and their intended results ( Husu 1999 ) . Practical theories draw on and incorporate cognition from assorted spheres of practical cognition, such as, cognition of ego, cognition of pupils, cognition direction, cognition of course of study, and cognition of context ( Elbaz 1983, cited in Reading Module 2 ) . Practical theories are considered critical to the success of learning because educational jobs encountered by instructors are normally practical jobs ( Sanders & A ; McCutcheon 1986 ) . These jobs can non be solved by merely detecting or contriving new cognition or solution. Drum sanders and McCutcheon ( 1986 ) assert that in order to be effectual in work outing educational jobs, solutions must be put in action to suit in the peculiar fortunes of a specific educational scene. It is of import to detect here that practical theories are non ever consciously held, despite that instructors may frequently explain them. Sometimes, instructors may still move if they are non witting of the grounds for their actions. In this state of affairs, instructors ‘ actions themselves may be the lone manifestation of what Argyris called their ‘theories-in-use ‘ , which are realized by instructors through contemplation on their pattern ( Sanders & A ; McCutcheon 1986 ) . Teachers in sch oolrooms use more than one theory, some theories could be known to them and some could be non. Whether or non instructors are witting of their theories of action, all what they enact during their Sessionss is rational in the sense that it is intended to carry through some intent and to bring forth a coveted effect ( Marland & A ; Osborne 1990 ) . Every instruction pattern used by instructors is employed rationally because instructors are engaged in knowing and purposive action to make conditions suited and facilitate acquisition ( Sanders & A ; McCutcheon 1986 ) . Teachers hold thoughts about what is of import to accomplish and what specific patterns they may utilize to learn in a peculiar state of affairs. All these thoughts as Sanders & A ; McCutcheon assert might be incorporated into a individual practical theory of learning in the instructor ‘s head, but more frequently, theories are used together in sets. These theories are developed by instructors over their whole calling by reflecting on what they know of the purposes of instruction, through duologue with, and observation of, other instructors, and by informally detecting their pupils as they talk, write, act, respond, speak, and engage in other activities throughout the twenty-four hours. Schon ( 1987 ) argues that the capacity to develop these meta-structures of cognition can be developed through brooding pattern. Brooding pattern requires that professionals engage in a duologue with themselves and their environments in which they review the jobs that are portion of their day-to-day pattern. The professional, confronted with a surprise job, uses intuition and stored cognition to try solutions, with each effort going progressively closer to an appropriate solution. Throughout this procedure, the professional is forced to oppugn premises about the cognition base, doing a restructuring of schemes of action and apprehensions of the phenomena that occurred. Once the solution is reached, each episode of â€Å" reflecting in action † , causes the professional to change pattern behaviour by adding new information to the shop of professional cognition. This increases the organic structure of adept cognition and makes it less differentiated, leting the professional to r eassign cognition across practical state of affairss. Much of the acquisition that is acquired by instructors in the action context is mostly self-validating and self-confirming. Learning basically occurs in fortunes of hot action where determinations must be made rapidly and instinctively, chances to reflect and do significance of the experience are limited. The significance taken from these experiences tend to be self-validating and self-confirming. Components of Practical TheoriesLiterature on instructors ‘ practical theories depicts most of the constituents of these theories. However, practical theory does non merely consist of constituents but of links among, or inter-relationships among, the constituents. These links or relationships among constituents give the theory its construction or form and find how good it fulfils its map. Footings that are normally appear in the literature in histories of instructors ‘ practical theories are as follows: instructors ‘ values, beliefs, rules, regulations, ends, tactics and schemes, normal desirable provinces and pupil provinces, cues, properties, contextual variables, images, metaphors, and pedagogical content cognition ( Marland 1998, 2007 ; Connelly & A ; Clandinin 1988 ; Marland & A ; Osborne 1990 ; Connelly, Clandinin & A ; He 1997 ) . Marland ( 1998 ) argues that instructors are keenly cognizant of how one constituent influences others. Teachers offer accounts for why they adopt different schemes with different categories at the same twelvemonth degree, why they spend more clip with some groups than with others, how their beliefs about pupil larning affect their pick of rules of instructor behaviour and instruction schemes, and how they use the pupil cues to place that provinces of head of pupils. Marland adds that the constituents of practical theories are non isolated, independent, and free-floating units ; they are linked together in a quite important manner. The constituents within a practical theory must complement and back up each other because a practical theory is a program for action. It is directed at accomplishing some ends. In other words, all constituents in a specific lesson program need to work good together in order for the ends of the lesson to be achieved. It is the links between constituents tha t give coherency and integrity of intent to a practical theory ( Marland 2007 ) . The linkages among constituents of a theory are like linkages among words in a sentence. To ease their communicating with each other, the words have to be presented in a peculiar sequence. This careful sequencing of words would give the set of words a significance. In a similar manner, learning becomes meaningful when instructors can do mention to the interactions among the assorted constituents of their theories ( Reading Module 3 ) . Teachers ‘ RulesRules are the clear statements used by instructors in schoolrooms to bespeak to pupils what represents appropriate behavior or action ( Marland 2007 ) . Elbaz uses the term, ‘rule of pattern ‘ and defines it as â€Å" a brief, clearly formulated statement of what to make or how to make in a peculiar state of affairs often encountered in pattern † ( Elbaz, cited in Connelly & A ; Clandinin 1988, p. 63 ) . Classroom regulations are normally used by instructors to set up forms of behaviour that facilitate a societal order and productive working scenes, guarantee effectual usage of clip, and facilitate bend taking in treatment and purposeful motion by pupils ( Marland 2007 ) . Rules may hold two signifiers, they could be brief statements or drawn-out description of pattern from which a figure of related regulations may be inferred ( Connelly & A ; Clandinin 1988 ) . For illustration, when the instructor provinces at the beginning of twelvemonth to the pupils that he/she will listen really carefully to them, promote them to rephrase, and let them to show their feelings, sentiments, and concerns without judging them. This statement expresses a figure of regulations, such as, listen carefully, encourage pupils to rephrase, let express of feelings, do non judge. All these regulations taken together will organize an attack of communicating in the schoolroom that can be expressed in the statement of a rule. They are called as regulations because they make mention to what and how of the state of affairs with the intent being taken for granted ( Connelly & A ; Clandinin 1988 ) . Rules may be suggested by the instructor or formulated jointly by the instructor and p upils. Seeking pupils input in the preparation of regulations will make a democratic ambiance in the schoolroom and will promote pupils engagement, which increases pupils understanding and committedness. Husu ( 1999 ) argues that regulations are normally justified by instructors because they have proven their worth and have hence been approved. Teachers think implicitly and explicitly that the regulations of pattern used in classrooms work efficaciously. And because they work, instructors act consequently. This type of concluding would warrant a connexion between the regulations of pattern and their intended results in schoolrooms. They are justified because they have met the criterions of the smooth practical action held by the instructor. Rules of pattern are socially constructed ; they emerge from old ages of experience in school scenes. It is a manner instructors found to be effectual in work outing debatable state of affairss. They set a strong organisational power to frequently helter-skelter patterns in the schoolroom. Teachers ‘ MetaphorsMarland ( 2007 ) argues that instructors sometimes refer to learning as mothering, coaching, or horticulture, each one of these descriptions draws attending to some similarities between learning and other activities. This pulling attending to similarities between two things is what a metaphor does. Analysis of these metaphors about learning reveals much about the ways instructors think about learning and how they conceptualize of import facets of their work and how they believe schoolrooms map best. Teacher ‘s behaviour in schoolrooms is normally consistent with the metaphors used in their negotiations about learning. For this ground, metaphors used by instructors are considered as supplying valuable penetrations into their practical theories. Metaphor is a constituent of personal practical cognition. It can be identified when listening to the instructor ‘s address ( Connelly & A ; Clandinin 1988 ) . It gives inventive look to this cognition that makes it possible for a individual to research concealed rational avenues contained in a metaphor ‘s frame ( Connelly, Clandinin & A ; He 1997 ) . A individual metaphor can be used to depict how instructors view their work in the schoolroom. It can be used to convey cardinal facets of the instructor ‘s position of instruction and acquisition ( Korthagen & A ; Lagerwerf 2001 ) , covering such constituents as ends, tactics, schemes, values, and pupil provinces. Deductions of Teachers ‘ Practical TheoriesMarland ( 1998 ) argues that a successful alteration in the instruction perspectives requires developing a committedness to follow new values and beliefs. This hard and time-consuming activity is considered critical because values and beliefs are cardinal to instructors ‘ impressions about learning. Valuess and beliefs are considered the cardinal constituents of the moral models that instructors hold, which besides influence their decision-making about learning. This moral model motivates and gives purpose and way to believing about learning. Teacher pedagogues that intend to do the displacement need to value practical cognition about learning that pupil instructors develop within their classs. They besides need to value the procedures such as those built-in in critical thought and contemplation that contribute to the acquisition and alteration of practical cognition and theories. Accepting these values would do instructors pedag ogues review their beliefs about pupil instructors, how they learn to learn, the function of the instructor pedagogue, and the nature of cognition. Alliance with the position that instruction is shaped by the practical theories of instructors requires that teacher instruction aid pupil instructors to develop practical theories that are personally meaningful and relevant to the contexts in which they pattern. This end emphasizes the importance of valuing personal liberty, critical thought, and diverseness of learning manners. This end besides requires careful attending to the schemes used in teacher instruction to guarantee that they are effectual in advancing personal and context-specific practical theories to the pre-service instructors. The schemes selected should be influenced by the nature of the topic for which the instructor pedagogue has duty. Besides make up one's minding the appropriate schemes, pedagogues should seek to bring on through their classs the provinces of pupils in order to ease end attainment. Students need to be inquiry-oriented and self-evaluative, to take enterprises and to be originative, and to demo readiness to be brooding and unfastened to other possibilities in order to construct their ain practical theories. Furthermore, pedagogues here play an of import function in easing pupils ‘ provinces by honoring enterprise, commending soul-searching, back uping flexibleness and bring forthing options, constructing self-pride of pupils, and promote hazard taking. It is imperative for instructor pedagogues to reflect on the rules which they build into their actions to guarantee that they reflect the values, beliefs, schemes, and pupil provinces that facilitate pupil teacher theory-building. Teacher pedagogues need to guarantee that they know plenty about the pupil instructors they are working with in ord er to be able to polish other characteristics of their practical theories, such as schemes, rules, pupil provinces and ends, and to personalise these in the involvements of maximising benefits for pupil instructors ( Marland 1998 ) . DecisionThis paper presented an overview of instructors ‘ practical theories. Practical theories are considered critical to the success of learning because educational jobs encountered by instructors are normally practical jobs ( Sanders & A ; McCutcheon 1986 ) . Practical theories are impressions about how to learn, these impressions have been crafted by instructors from their ain experiences of learning for set uping their peculiar work scenes. Practical theory does non merely consist of constituents but of links among, or inter-relationships among, the constituents. 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